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Item Restricted Analyzing the effect of household income on female labor force participation in the context of educational attainment, marital status, and urbanization(2023-06-27) Custodio, Bryan A.; Mozo, Anjelalie B.; Solon, Orville Jose C.The study investigates the relationship between Female Labor Force Participation (FLFP) and household income (HI) and examines how this relationship varies with educational attainment, marital status, and urbanization. The main hypothesis is that while a negative relationship exists between HI and FLFP, the magnitude, direction, and/or other dimensions of this relationship are affected by a woman's marital status, educational attainment, and urbanization. To test this hypothesis, the study estimates five distinct binomial probit models to test the inclusion of variables of interest and their interaction terms with total household income in relation to FLFP, using the most recent 2018 merged data from the Labor Force Survey (LFS) and Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES). It is found that without the inclusion of education, marital status, and urbanization, the probability of women joining the labor force increases with household income but at a decreasing rate. Meanwhile, when education is taken into account, the impact of household income on female labor force participation (FLFP) is entirely negative. However, in this model, higher-income households tend to experience a greater positive effect from education in terms of FLFP. Urbanization and marital status were not found to have any strong effect on the direction of the relationship of household income to FLFP. However, urban and marital status did have effects on the slope, with the effect being stronger for married individuals than those not married. Ultimately, this study provides insights into the factors that negatively affect and positively contribute to the labor force participation of women in the Philippines, allowing policymakers to design targeted interventions that address barriers and strengthenItem Restricted Globalization and the narrowing of the gender gap in labor markets(2021-06) Estrada, Miguel Antonio G.; Daway-Ducanes, Sarah Lynne S.Despite a general reduction in global gender inequality over the years, women continue to face discrimination in labor markets. Women’s labor force participation in 2019 was only at 47.3%—substantially lower by 27 percentage points compared to men. Among factors that open economic opportunities to women, globalization has been among the most widely examined. The classic argument is that increased economic flows create work opportunities, especially for low-skilled individuals who are mostly females. However, this idea tends to reduce globalization to just one area and misses out other important facets. Using the multi-faceted KOF globalization index and the economic, social, and political sub-indices, as well as de facto measures of openness, we examine the effect of globalization on gender equality, as measured by the (a) female-to-male labor force participation ratio (F-M LFPR) and (b) F-M ratio of wage and salaried workers-to-working age population, wherein an increase in either ratio signals a narrowing of the gender gap. Employing two-step system GMM on a panel of 160 countries for the period 1997-2015, we find evidence that certain aspects of globalization result in a narrowing of the gender gap. In particular, we find that trade openness has a robustly positive effect on the F-M LFPR ratio; while the KOF social globalization has a positive impact on the F-M ratio of wage and salaried workers-to-working age population. We also find that institutions play a more significant role in reducing the gender gap for wage and salaried workers than for workers in general. The results suggest differences in the nature of informal and formal sector work, in that the former tends to be less likely found among wage and salaried work, where rules on equal treatment and non-discrimination tend to be more binding.